Introduction

Kashmir is known for its fascinating beauty, perfection beyond this world makes it a paradise. Shahjahan called it Paradise on earth as saying “Agar Firdous Baroae Zameen Ast, Hami Astu Hami Astu Hami Ast”. Kashmir is one of the most picturesque states lies in northwest Himalaya. Geographically Kashmir is situated between 33° 30´ and 34° 45´ N latitudes and 74° and 75° 30´ E longitudes covering an area of 500sq. Km (Fig. 1.1). The Valley is unique oval shaped, at an average altitude of 1800 meter above mean sea level. Kashmir Valley is approximately 140kms in length and 32-40kms in breadth traversed through its length by Jhelum River. Kashmir Valley is surrounded by Great Himalayan Range in the northeast and the Pir Panjal Range in the southwest. The basin is formed by tectonic upliftment of Pir Panjal Range, which impound the drainage of Himalayan side and gave rise to a vast lake, known as “Karewa Lake”. The word “Karewa” is derived from Kashmiri dialect meaning “Wudars”. The lake was drained through the Baramullah “Tatamulla Gorge” due to continued upliftment of Pir Panjal Range (Godwin Austen, 1859, 1864). The sediments deposited in the lake are about 1300m in thickness, known as Quaternary sediments of Karewa Group. These deposits, known as ‘Karewas’ or ‘Karewa Group’ are largely fluvio-lacustrine and glacio-fluvio-lacustrine and aeolian in origin (De Terra and Petterson, 1939; Bhatt, 1982; Pant, 1987). The Karewa Group of sediments is mostly composed of sand, silt, clay, shale, mud, lignite, gravel and loessic sediments. 

Tectonically Kashmir Valley constitutes the Nappe Zone representing a tectonic depression formed by the upliftment of Pir Panjal Range along the Panjal thrust. The Valley in the form of a graben is flanked by two horsts, Pir Panjal Range in the southwestern side and Zanskar Range in the northeastern side. Geologically, Kashmir Valley comprises a very important place in the geotectonics of Kashmir Himalaya.  The geology of the Kashmir region displays a chronological record of the Great Alpine Orogeny, including sedimentation, tectonics, and volcanicity, that followed the Himalayan Orogeny. 

Fig. 1.1; Map of Kashmir valley and study area Pakharpora.

 

1.1 Background of the Study

The Karewa sediments are composed of 1300m thick sequence of glacio-fluvio-lacustrine and aeolian sediments. These are divided into Lower, Hirpur Formation and Upper, Nagum formation, separated by an angular unconformity. The sediments of Nagum Formation is further subdivided into three Members i.e. Shupyon Member, Pampore Member, and top Dilpur Member. The Dilpur Formation is known as ‘Loam Member’ of Nagum Formation. The Dilpur Formation consists of dark brown to golden brown loamy silt called loess. Loess is homogenous, typically non stratified, porous, feeble, slightly coherent, calcareous, fine grained, silty, pale yellow or buff colour, wind blown aeolian sediments. These loessic sediments are about 21m thick and are composed of about 10 interbedded profiles of paleosols on the Pir Panjal side, where as along the Himalayan side only three profiles of paleosols have been noticed. Paleosols are the soils of the past or the buried or ancient soils, formed during warm and humid climatic conditions under rich vegetative cover, representing interglacial period. The loess-paleosol sequences can be proved as a good tool in deciphering the climate of the past and nature of weathering process during its formation. Hence the loess-paleosol preserved in Karewas of Kashmir can be used for establishing the past climatic fluctuations in Kashmir Valley.

The Karewas of Kashmir Valley have attracted the attention of the geologists from time to time. Bhatt and Chatterji (1976) called the loessic deposits of Dilpur Member as ' loams' or 'Loam Members' of the Upper Karewas and proposed the Holocene age to these sediments. Pant et al (1978, 1985) carried out SEM and micromorphological studies of these loessic sediments and suggested that these sediments are resting over the marker gravel beds of Shupyon Member to the southwest and Pampur Member on Northeastern flank of Kashmir Valley representing a major lithofacies of Upper Kerawa. Agarawal et al. 1979; Kusumgar and Agarwal, 1985 reported the presence of only 2-3 profiles of paleosols towards the Himalayan side as compared to 10-12 profiles of paleosol to the Pir Panjal side.

Bronger and Pant (1985) for the first time presented a stratigraphic comparison between loess-paleosol sequences on both flanks of Kashmir Valley. They concluded that near Burzhoam the older loess-paleosol sequence is not present and it represents the younger equivalent of the sequence exposed on the southwestern part of Kashmir Valley. The thermoluminiscence studies of these sediments suggest that the deposition of these loessic sediments started at ~7 ka ago (Bronger et al, 1987 and Singhvi et al, 1987). Dilli et al. (1994) carried out mineralogical study of these sediments and suggested that the composition of these sediments is uniform throughout the valley and is exceptionally enriched in clay content. It is clear from the previous work that little work has been carried out on these loessic sediments, so the present research work “Lithostratigraphical, micromorphological, geomorphological and grain size study of Quaternary loess-paleosol sediments of Karewa Group and its significance for the paleoclimate and pedogenesis of Kashmir Valley” is undertaken for the study.

1.2  Aims and objectives

The aim of the present project work is to study the lithostratigraphy, micromorphology, grain-size analysis of loess paleosol of Kashmir Valley and its significance for pedogenesis and paleoclimate. The main objectives of the present work are:

1.     Identification of lithostratigraphy of different paleosol profiles in Kashmir loess sediments.

2.     To study the lithstratigraphy of Kashmir loess.

3.     Micromorphological study of the Kashmir loess-paleosol sediments.

4.     Sedimentological grain size analytical study of loess-paleosol sediments.

5.     Geomorphological study of Group of Karewa sediments of Kashmir basin.

1.3  Methodology

The above mentioned objectives were obtained by conducting field as well as laboratory studies.

1.3.1    The field study of the loess-paleosol sequence at Karapora village section has been carried out for one week to collect the following field data.

Ø To locate the different paleosol profiles in the Kashmir loess.

Ø Preparation of lithostratigraphy column

Ø Sampling of different loess-paleosol horizons.

Ø Photographic documentation of different characteristic features of the loessic sediments. 

1.3.2  Laboratory study

Ø Preparation of thinsection for micromorphological study.

Ø Micromorphological study of thin-sections under microscope.

Ø Photographic documentation of micromorphological features under trinocular microscope.

Ø Classification of paleosol horizons based upon macro and micromorphological studies.

 1.4   Study area

          For the purpose of present project work, the loess-paleosol sequence exposed at Karapora, nala bank site is selected for the detailed study. The study area lies at 33° 50' N and 74° 47' E. The area is a small village about 35kms away from Srinagar in the southwestern side of Kashmir Valley. Here the loess paleosol sequence is exposed along the Karapora, Bachnar, which is about 21m thick comprising 10 profiles of paleosols. Another study area of Kashmir loess-paleosols towards Himalayan side is Burzahom. It is about 5 Km northeast of Srinagar city and lies between 34º 10´ N and 74º 53´ E. It is also well connected by road.

Geological setting of the Kashmir Himalaya

2.1  Introduction

Kashmir Valley is an intermontane, bowl shaped valley formed by the upliftment of Pir Panjal Range during Plio-Pleistocene age. The longitudinal depression of Kashmir Valley in the northwestern side of the Himalayan Range constitutes an important relief feature of geographic and geologic significance. Kashmir Valley is located on a nearly nappe sheet (Wadia, 1976) (fig. 2.1) Kashmir Valley has a complete stratigraphic record of the rocks of all ages from Archean to Recent.

 

The stratigraphic sequence of the geological formations with general lithology of Kashmir region is given in Table 1. The consolidated hard rocks spread out along the mountains bordering the main Kashmir Valley. Two main geological formations comprising the bedrock of the valley are the Panjal Volcanic Series and the Triassic limestone. The lithological description of different formations, of the major rock types are briefly described below:

Age	Formation	Thickness (meters)	Lithology
Plio-Pleistocene	Karewa Formation	1300-1800	Conglomerates, silt, clay sand and loess-paleosols
Jurassic	Wuyan Formation	300	Limestone and sandstone
Triassic	Khrew Formation	2000	Clay, shale, limestone, and conglomerate
Permian	Zewan Formation	400	Tuffs, shale, slate quartzite and basalt
Late Carboniferous	Panjal Volcanic Agglomerate Slates	2400	Shale, limestone and sandstone, andesitic and basaltic trapes. Agglomerate Slates and tuffs
Middle Carboniferous	Fenestella Shale	600	Shale, sandstone and conglomerate
Early Carboniferous	Syringothyris Limestone	300	Limestone, sandstone and conglomerate
Devonian	Muth Quartzite	900	Quartizites
Silurian		50	Slate, limestone and sandstone
Cambrian			Quartizite, slate, shale and sandstone
Early Cambrian	Dogra Slate	1525	Slate, limestone and shale
Pre-Cambrian	Salkhala Series		Quartzite, phyllites and shale etc.

               Table 1. The stratigraphic sequence of geological formation of Kashmir region (Wadia, 1982)

2.1.1 Salkhala Series.

Salkhala Series is named after a village located on the left bank of Kishanganga River in the northwest of Kashmir. The age of Salkhala Series is Precambrian. It is the oldest metasedimentary unit of Northern Himalaya, representing the basement of Kashmir Nappe. The Salkhala Series constitutes phyllite, schist, quartzite, carbonaceous slates, and graphitic phyllites associated with carbonaceous grey or white limestone, marble, calcareous slate and calcareous schist. These oldest rocks are found around the northwestern side of the Kashmir valley and portions of the Pir Panjal range in Karnah, Zanskar, Ramban, Kishtwar, and Badarwah.

2.1.2  Dogra Slates

The Dogra Slates conformably overlay the Salkhala Series in the western flanks of Pir Panjal range and northwestern parts of the Kashmir valley. The name of the Dogra Slate was given by Wadia, (1925) for a mountains succession of black greenish slates and phyllites in the honour of then Dogra reign. These Early Cambrian rocks known as Dogra Slates have 1525m thickness. These rocks are unfossiliferous and include slates, phyllites, and are rich in trilobites. The slates show developing foliation, the original bedding planes are rarely distinguishable, as the super induced cleavage planes have largely obliterated bands of different colours. The lenticular quartz veins are common. These rocks are best exposed in Handwara, Lidder Valley and in the Shames Abri Syncline.

2.1.3  Muth Quartzite

The Silurian rocks are overlain by a thick succession of snow white to greenish grey, pinkish orthoquartzite of Devonian age, known as Muthquartzites. The thickness of this Muth Quartzite Formation is 900 meters. The formation consists of hard quartzite, which is generally massive, and of granular texture and at places with ferruginous spots. It also contains layers of siliceous limestone and agrillaceous matters. These rocks are exposed at Aishmuqam, Kotsu, Banihal and Sindh Valley.

2.1.4  Syringothyris Limestone

The Syringothyris Limestone of Early Carboniferous age conformably overlies the Muth Quartzite Formation in the Liddar valley and is exposed at Kotsu, Ichhnar and Liwur. It comprises Shale, limestone and Quartzite. The thickness of this Formation is 300 meters. The most characteristic fossil found in this stratigraphic unit is “Syringothyris Caspidate”, which is regarded as index fossil of great importance.

2.1.5  Fenestella Shale   

Syringothyris limestone is conformably overlain by Fenestella Shale of Middle Carboniferous age. The Fossil fenestella gave rise to the name of this formation. Fenestella Series is a thick sequence of quartzite and shale of about 600m thickness. The lower beds of these rocks are unfossiliferous, while the upper beds are full of fenestella fossils and some brachiopods, trilobites, lamellibranches and corals.

2.1.6  Agglomeratic Slate

The Agglomeratic Slates are pyroclastic slates, conglomerates, and agglomeratic products. They contain pieces of quartzite, slate, porphyry granites etc. irregularly dispersed in a fine grained greywacke like matrix. The presence of fenestella and their conformable upward passage into the basal Gondwana conglomerate suggest Upper Carboniferous age to these rocks. Well-exposed outcrops of Agglomeratic slates are in the SE and SW parts of the Kashmir Valley.

2.1.7  Panjal Traps

 Agglomeratic Slates are overlain by a thick series of bedded andesitic and basaltic flows called Panjal Trapes. The estimated thickness is between 1800 and 2500m and are well exposed in the NW and SE parts of Kashmir. The great volcanic activity of the Upper Carboniferous continued up to the end of the Lower Permian. The igneous activity was prevalent in certain areas and the sea was encroaching in other areas. This is the reason that marine sediments of Permian and Triassic age are lying side by side with the product of volcanism.

2.1.8  Zewan Formation

The name 'Zewan Formation' has been applied to the entire succession from Gangamopteris beds to Lower Triassic beds. The age of this Formation is Permian and is about 400 meters thick. Zewan Formation is the series of marine fossiliferous calcareous shale and limestone. The lower part of the Zewan formation is argillaceous but the upper part is calcareous. Zewan Formation is well developed in Zewan Spur, Guryal ravine near Khanmu. Some outcrops are also exposed in Liddar valley, Pir Panjal and upper Sindh.

2.1.9  Khrew Formation

This Formation is named after a village Khrew in Pulwama district. The age of this Formation is Triassic and has the thickness of about 2000 meters. The Triassic belt is widespread and shows impressive development in the Kashmir Valley. The rocks include limestone, shale, and dolomites and are exposed in the Sindh, Lidder, Warwan, Guraiz and Tilel Valley in the Pir Panjal flank facing the Jehlum Valley. The rocks show the presence of fossils of cephalopods.

2.1.10  Wuyan Formation

By the close of Triassic period, the main phase of the sedimentation history in the Kashmir basin ceased except in some places where the rocks of Jurassic and Cretaceous age are found. The Jurassic rocks consist of limestone and sandstone and are exposed in the Jurassic valley of Banihal, Sindh valley, Lidder valley and the northeastern slopes of the Pir Panjal Range. The Formation is named after the Village, Wuyan in southwest of Kashmir Valley. The thickness of Wuyan Formation is about 300 meters.  

2.1.11  Karewa Formation

The name Karewa has been derived from Kashmiri dialect meaning ‘Wuders’. During the Cenozoic era, the Kashmir under went the main phases of basin formation. During this period the basin received its full maturity with the rising of Pir Panjal Range. The remnant of this short, but eventful age (Plio-Pliestocene to Sub-Recent) are found in the from of glacio-fluvial-lacustrine deposits, which cover nearly half of the Valley’s 2500sq. kms area. The average thickness of these deposits is 1300 meters. These deposits include the Karewas, alluvium, moraines and the glacial clays. The Karewas are covered later by the late Pleistocene to Recent aeolian deposits of loessic sediments.

Geomorphology of Karewas

3.1  Introduction

Geomorphology is the branch of geology that examines the formation and structure of surface of the earth. It is the study of landforms, including their origin and evolution and the process that shaped them. It seeks to understand the landform history and dynamics and also predict future changes through field observations, experimenting and computer modeling. The landscape is built-up through tectonic uplift, volcanism, erosion and mass wasting, which produce sediments. These sediments are transported and deposited at different places. The deposition of sediments followed by tectonic upheaval and erosion give rise to landforms. The landforms are the elements of the landscape that can be observed as a whole, and has consistence of form or regular change of form.

          Geomorphic landforms are the function of structure, process, and time. Each landform can be visualized as covering a rock mass that has specific physical and chemical properties, imperfections, and geometrically disposed discontinuities (bedding planes, joints, faults, and so on). All these mineralogic, lithologic, and deformational factors are collected in the geomorphic concept of structure and lithology. The interaction of surface processes with geological structures does not completely explain landforms, unless we include in the explanation the length of time during which the process has been operating or the degree of modification (stage) that has been reached. Some geomorphic processes, such as landslides or earthquakes are nearly instantaneous. Where as some geomorphic processes act much more slowly, such as soil creep, flow, erosion and deposition.

            Most of geomorphic processes are interconnected and are easily observed and measured with modern technology. In addition, the individual processes are considered to be either erosional, depositional, or both. An erosional process involves the wearing down of the earth’s surface by wind, water, and/or ice. A depositional process is the laying down of material that has been eroded by wind, water, and/or ice.

 3.2  Geomorphology of Karapora loess deposits

Glaciers are one of the most significant agents of landscape change simply because of their sheer size and power as they move across an area. The sediment created by the grinding down of rocks by glaciers is called glacial rock floor. The rock floor is deposited by glaciers on the periglacial landforms, where it is deflated by wind and deposited in adjacent areas. These sediments of periglacial areas provide the best source of loessic sediments. During the Quaternary period loess was deposited on all exposed, geomorphologically stable surfaces throughout the Kashmir Valley. Pant et al, (1978) was the first to propose the aeolian origin of loess and assumed that deposition took place between 15000 and 9000 years ago.

 A paleosol is a buried soil formed on a landscape that has undergone pedogenic modification. The pedogenesis or soil formation is the function of parent material, climate, organisms, topography and time. Chemical and mechanical weathering of rocks under certain climatic regime and in the presence of plants, animals and microorganisms, through an interval of time, favour the formation of paleosols. Almost 10 paleosols have been recognized in Karapora loess section. The process of deposition of loess and formation of soil, suggests that surface at Karapora was stable throughout the process.

The loess terrain in Karapora has been heavily ravinated and gullied resulting into the development of badland topography (Fig. 3.1). A badlands is a type of arid terrain where softer sedimentary rocks and clay-rich soils have been extensively eroded by wind and water. Vallies, canyons, ravines, gullies, rills and other such geological forms are also present in the loess deposits of Karapora. Rills are formed as small streams formed through the loess deposits by the action of water. Stream channels with discrete cut bank and steep headed gullies are also present at Karapora. Steep slopes formed by the action of weathering are present in the form of (scarp) escarpment (Plate 1, a)

3.3 Geology of Karewas basin

The Karewa sediments of Kashmir Valley spread throughout the Valley covering about 2500 sq. km (Fig. 3.1). Karewa sediments are composed of unconsolidated gravel-sand-mud succession, making large plateau-like terraces. These terrigenous Karewas sediments are of Plio-Pleistocene age and are about 1300 meter in thickness. These deposits are almost horizontal but tilted towards Pir-Panjal Range. The basement rock of these Karewa sediments is Triassic limestone and Late Permian Panjal Trap. Godwin Austen (1864) was the first to take interest in the detailed geology of the Karewa deposits. Drew (1875), Lydekker (1878), Middlemiss (1911, 1924), de Terra and Paterson (1939), Wadia (1914) and Bhatt (1975) are the other workers who worked on the Karewa deposits.

During the Pleistocene Period, Kashmir have witnessed four major glaciation periods, which are separated by the interglacial periods of humid and temperate climatic conditions. During the interglacial periods basin witnessed the appearance of a wide spread lake which occupied whole of the present day Kashmir Valley.  It is a synclinal basin, which preserves an excellent record of the alternate glacial and interglacial periods. This resulted in a thick deposition of sediments, until it was drained through a gorge near Baramulla. These deposits occupy nearly half of the area of the present day Kashmir Valley. The Karewa Group has been divided into Lower Hirpur formation and and Upper Nagum Formation (Table 2, Fig. 3.1).

3.3.1 Lower Karewas (Hirpur Formation)

The Hirpur Formation is named after the village Hirpur in the Rembiara River Valley. The Hirpur Formation accounts for the major thickness of the Karewa Group and shows good exposure in the nalas and rivers flowing down the Pir Panjal range. The Lower Karewas are mostly argillaceous, light grey, sandy, dark grey clays, coarse to fine grained greenish sands but have the gravel beds at the base containing most of the lignite of the Karewas. According to Wadia (1941) the basal lower Karewas are preglacial in origin and their top portions represent the debris of second ice advance. The original thickness of lower Karewas is estimated to be about 1675m. The outcrops of Hirpur Formation are well exposed in the southwestern part of the Kashmir Valley floor. The Hirpur Formation is further subdivided into three Member i.e. Dubjan Member, Rambiara Member and Methowian Member.

The Dubjan Member is named after a village in the Shupyon in the southwest of Kashmir. Bhatt and Chatterji (1976) reported about 250m thick sand-clay-lignite sequence of this oldest sequence in the Hirpur Formation. However, the maximum estimated thickness of Dubjan Member in Ningal nala section is 600 meters. It makes the lowermost exposed part of the Karewa Group, which shows faulted contact with basement rocks. This Member is exposed near Bagampathri and Dubjan in Rembiara River Valley and records the fossils contents of molluscs and ostrocods. 

Recent		Alluvium	Alluvium                                                                                                            Terrace Gravels
Pleistocene	Upper.	Karewa Group	Upper Karewa	Dilpur Formation	Dilpur Formation	Golden-.brown colored loamy clay beds, carbonaceous clay band, paleosols and calcareous nodules
	Middle
	Lower.		Middle Karewa	Nagam formation	Krungus member …………………………………. Pampore Member …………………………………. Shopian Member ..  …angular unconformity…….. Methowanian Member …………………………………. Rambiara Member …………………………………. Dubjan Member	Stratified glacial drift, grave bed, laminated marl and silt sequence, sand bed, sandy clay and clay ……………………………Bedded sequence of sandy clay, ignite, sand conglomerate, lignite to dark grey plastic clay and verved sediments
Pliocene			Lower Karewa	Hirpur Formation
		Pre- Karewa Basement (Panjal Traps, Limestone, slates)

Table 2: Lithostratigraphy of the Karewa Group (D.K. Bhatt, 1982)

The Rembiara Member is named after the Rembiara River flowing through Shupyon. In Rembiara Valley near Hirpur almost 800 meter thick succession of conglomerate is exposed referred to as Rembiara Member. The geographical distribution of Rembiara Member in the Karewa basin indicates a gradual reduction in its thickness towards northeast i.e. away from the Pir Panjal Range. This reduction is accompanied with the reduction in the dimension of constituting conglomerate-clast. This Member of Hirpur Formation consists of conglomerate with irregularly developed intervening lenses and layers usually of sand and occasionally of clay. The Rembiara Member has not
yielded any fossil so far.

Fig. 3.1: Lithostratigraphical map of Kashmir Valley.

The Methowian Member, named after a small marg up the cliff opposite to Hirpur village, constitute the youngest lithological unit of the Hirpur Formation. The Methawian Member consists of a succession of sand, sandy clay, clay and lignite. The maximum thickness of the Methawian Member is 400 meter observed in Romushi River section. In most significant aspect of Methawian Member is that in the muddy sediments, the sand layers show exclusively wave shaped (rippled) structure, which indicates shallow water body. However mostly lenticular sand bodies are found with in muddy sediments of lake bottom, which rarely show facies change. There are records of vertrebrate fossil from the strata of the Methawian. In addition, molluscan shells, diatoms, ostrocods and fossil leaves and fruits of plants are recorded in several levels.

3.3.2  Upper Karewas (Nagum Formation)

The Nagum Formation combined with the top Dilpur Member has been referred as Upper Karewa. The Namgum Formation is named after the village of Qasba Nagum, on Srinagar-Yusmarg road. The Nagum Formation of Middle Pleistocene age consists of gravel, sand, clay, marl, and loess, unconformably overlies the Hirpur Formation. The Nagum Formation are distributed nearly throughout the Kashmir Valley floor. This Formation is characterized by the absence of lignite and by rare fossil content. The Nagum Formation starts with gravel facies which according to De Terra represents second glacial and interglacial stage. The lacustrine facies comprise the pale yellow laminated marls and silts with medium to coarse-grained calc grits and varved clays. The lacustrine facies is overlain by the loess facies, which comprise brown granular loams occurring as capping over the river terraces. The thickness of Upper Karewas is 610m. The Nagum Formation is further subdivided into three Member i.e. Shupyon Member, Pampur Member and top Dilpur Member.

The Shupyon Member is essentially a succession of Conglomerates, resting on the top of Hirpur Formation. It was earlier referred as Karewa gravel (De Terra and Paterson, 1939), Shopian Member (Farooqi and Desai, 1974) and Gravel Member (Bhatt, 1976). The Member is named after the Shopian town, where this Member is best exposed in Rembiara Valley. This lithounit shows variable thickness, with maximum thickness of 135 meters in Shupyon area. This Member shows characteristically features of braided stream deposits. The Shupyon Member consists of gravel bed, composed exclusively of Panjal Trap fragments of sub-angular to sub-rounded shape.

The Pampur Member, earlier termed as ‘Laminated Silt Member’ (Bhatt, 1976). This Member of Nagum Formation is measured to be 19.5 meters thick at Qasba Nagum. The best and thickest development of Pampur Member is observed in the large Karewa plateau, in the area of Pampur, where it is about 40m thick and is named after the same this place. The Pampur Member occurs invariably and abundantly exposed in the cliff walls of the numerous Karewa Plateau in the central and northeastern Kashmir valley, from Anantnag area in the southeast, through Bijbiara, Tral, Pampur to Patten and Barammula area in the northwest. The Pampur Member is essentially a succession of light grey to yellowish sandy clay, yellowish silt, greenish medium grained sand, bands of carbonates within the silt and mottled mud layers and some conglomerates.

The Dilpur Member is the Upper most Member of Nagum Formation (Bhatt, 1982) and is named after the Dilpur village near Nagum. This Member cap the Karewa terraces by a fine-grained, mostly silty succession without any bedding structure. In southwestern part of the Kashmir Valley, it overlies the conglomerates of Shupyon Member and is rather thick up to 20 to 30 meters. In the northeastern part it is upto 20 meter thick. This Member occurs on top of the Pampur Member. The Dilpur Member shows high variability in composition of sediments, grain size etc. The Dilpur Member consists of dark brown to golden brown loamy silt called loess. Loess is homogenous, typically non stratified, porous, feeble, slightly coherent, calcareous, fine grained, silty, pale yellow or buff colour, wind blown eolian sediments. These loessic sediments are about 21m thick and are composed of about 10 intrerbeded profiles of paleosols on the Pir Panjal side, where as along the Himalayan side only three profiles of paleosols have been noticed. The Dilpur Member ranges in age from Middle Pleistocene to Recent  period.

3.3.3  Recent

The valley of Kashmir is an alluvium-filled basin a large part of which is of recent formation deposited by the river Jhelum and the adjoining nallas of the Kashmir valley. These deposits include alluvial tracts, flood plains, river terraces, and talus and scree fans. The Recent unconsolidated sediments comprise clay, silt, and sand with occasional gravel. Because of the fine nature of these sediments, modest quantities of sub-surface water could be found both under unconfined as well as confined conditions. The belt along the fringes of mountain ranges encircling the valley continues along its margin and depression. The fringe areas of the valley are covered by scree and talus material derived from the hill slopes of surrounding ranges. The sediments are of heterogeneous nature ranging from boulder, cobbles, pebbles, gravels before merging into valley fill of fine-grained sediments. This belt may constitute a good groundwater reservoir due to the barrier provided by fine sediments of clay and silt disposed at various depths  both vertically and laterally (toward the main valley)  besides providing  favourable conditions to recharge the aquifers at deeper levels.